Rights, responsibilities and everyday law

Equality before the law

One of the basic principles of British life is that everybody, whatever their position or background, is subject to the same law. No one, including government ministers, police officers or public officials, is above the law, and everyone has equal access to the courts to defend their rights or challenge unfair treatment. This is often described as the rule of law, one of the fundamental values that new residents and citizens are expected to understand and respect.

The main legal protection against unfair treatment is the Equality Act 2010, which brought together earlier anti-discrimination laws into a single Act covering England, Scotland and Wales, with some provisions also applying to Northern Ireland. The Act protects people from discrimination based on characteristics such as age, disability, race, religion or belief, sex and sexual orientation, and it covers areas including work, education and the provision of services. Individuals can enforce these rights through the courts, and the Equality and Human Rights Commission also has powers to support enforcement of equality law.

Freedom from unfair discrimination is one of the rights that the UK is understood to offer everyone living there. This sits alongside the wider expectation, described in the shared values of British life, that people should treat everyone equally regardless of sex, race, religion, age, disability, class or sexual orientation, and should be aware of and respect the rights of others.

Freedom of belief

Freedom of belief and religion is one of the core rights available to everyone living in the UK. People are free to hold their own religious or non-religious beliefs and to practise their faith, provided they do so within the law and do not use their beliefs to justify harming others or breaking the law.

This freedom is closely linked to mutual respect and tolerance, one of the fundamental values underpinning British society. Britain is a religiously and culturally diverse country, and the expectation is that people of different faiths and beliefs, including those with no religious belief, live alongside one another with tolerance and mutual respect. Among the shared responsibilities expected of everyone is to respect the rights of others and to treat people fairly regardless of their religion.

Freedom of expression

Freedom of speech is another of the rights offered to everyone in the UK. People are free to hold and express their own opinions, including through peaceful protest, and to criticise government policy openly. This freedom extends to the press: <cite index="1-8,1-9">the UK has a free press, meaning that what is written in newspapers is free from government control.</cite> <cite index="1-10">Some newspaper owners and editors hold strong political opinions and run campaigns to try to influence government policy and public opinion.</cite>

Broadcasting is treated differently from the print press because of its wider reach and influence. <cite index="1-11">By law, radio and television coverage of the political parties must be balanced, so equal time has to be given to rival viewpoints.</cite> Parliament itself supports open scrutiny of government: <cite index="1-5,1-6">proceedings in Parliament are broadcast on television and published in official reports called Hansard, and written reports can be found in large libraries and on the UK Parliament website.</cite>

Freedom of expression is not unlimited. Like other freedoms, it operates within the law and alongside the responsibility to respect other people's rights, so it does not extend to speech that incites violence or hatred. This balance between individual liberty and responsibility towards others runs through all the freedoms recognised in British life.

The right to a fair trial

A fair trial is a basic protection in UK law. Anyone accused of a crime is presumed innocent until proven guilty, which means the prosecution must prove the case against them rather than the accused having to prove innocence. This principle is protected under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which the Human Rights Act 1998 brings into UK law.

A fair trial means the case is heard in public by a court that is independent and impartial, and within a reasonable time. The accused has the right to know the charge against them in a language they understand, the right to legal representation, and the right to challenge the evidence against them. In more serious criminal cases, guilt or innocence is often decided by a jury: a group of ordinary citizens chosen at random from the electoral register. Anyone on the electoral register aged 18 to 70 can be called for jury service.

These protections apply across the UK's different legal systems, which include separate arrangements for England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, though the underlying principle of a fair and open hearing before an independent court applies throughout.

Protection from discrimination

UK law protects people from being treated unfairly because of who they are. Discrimination means treating someone less favourably than others because of a personal characteristic that has nothing to do with their ability or suitability, such as their sex, race, disability, religion, or age.

One of the shared values expected of everyone living in the UK is to treat everyone equally, regardless of sex, race, religion, age, disability, class or sexual orientation. This applies in employment, education, housing, and when using services such as shops, transport, and healthcare. Bodies such as the Equality and Human Rights Commission exist to promote understanding of these rights and to help people who believe they have faced discrimination.

Equality law

The main law protecting people from discrimination in England, Scotland and Wales is the Equality Act 2010. It brought together a large number of earlier separate discrimination laws into a single Act, making the law easier to understand and apply consistently.

The Act sets out nine protected characteristics: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation. It is unlawful to discriminate against someone because of any of these characteristics in areas including the workplace, education, housing, and the provision of goods and services.

The Act also places a duty on employers and service providers to make reasonable adjustments for disabled people, so that they can access services and work on a fair footing with others. Public bodies such as councils, hospitals and schools have an additional public sector equality duty, requiring them to consider the impact of their decisions and policies on people with different protected characteristics.

Violence and the law

Violence against another person is a serious criminal offence in the UK, whatever the relationship between the people involved. The law protects everyone, including partners and family members, and the police treat reports of violence seriously regardless of who is responsible.

Rape is a particularly grave offence. The Life in the UK syllabus is explicit that a husband can be prosecuted for raping his wife: <cite index="2-4">any man who forces a woman to have sex, including a woman's husband, can be charged with rape.</cite> This makes clear that marriage gives no partner the right to force sex on the other, and that consent matters within marriage just as it does outside it.

Anyone experiencing violence, from a partner, family member or stranger, should contact the police, who have a duty to investigate and can arrange emergency protection and, where needed, a safe place to stay.

Domestic abuse and getting help

Domestic abuse refers to violence or abuse that takes place within a relationship or household, most often between partners or ex-partners. The advice is consistent and direct: <cite index="2-5,2-6">it is important for anyone facing domestic violence to get help as soon as possible, and a solicitor or the Citizens Advice Bureau can explain the available options.</cite>

Practical support is available across the UK. <cite index="2-7">In some areas there are safe places to go and stay in, called refuges or shelters.</cite> Victims and anyone concerned about them can also <cite index="2-9">phone the 24-hour National Domestic Violence Freephone Helpline on 0808 2000 247 at any time, or the police can help find a safe place to stay.</cite>

Domestic abuse is not only physical. It can include emotional, psychological or financial control, and it can affect men as well as women. Anyone worried about their own safety, or that of someone they know, should treat the police and the helpline as the first points of contact, since both can act quickly to arrange protection.

Forced marriage

A valid marriage in the UK requires the free and full agreement of both people. As the syllabus puts it, <cite index="2-3">a marriage should be entered into with the full and free consent of both people involved.</cite> A forced marriage, where one or both parties do not or cannot consent and pressure or abuse is used to make them go through with it, is illegal and is treated as a form of domestic abuse and a serious abuse of human rights.

Forcing someone to marry, or taking someone abroad to force them into marriage, has been a specific criminal offence in England, Wales and Scotland since 16 June 2014, under the Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014; a separate law makes it an offence in Northern Ireland. It is also an offence to do anything intended to cause a child under 18 to marry, even without any pressure or violence being proven. Conviction can lead to a prison sentence of up to seven years.

Alongside the criminal offence, courts can issue a Forced Marriage Protection Order (FMPO) to protect someone from being forced into marriage, or to protect someone already in one. These orders began in England, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2008 under the Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007, with equivalent orders introduced in Scotland in November 2011. A potential victim, or someone acting on their behalf, can apply to the court for an order, and breaching one is itself a criminal offence that can lead to imprisonment.

Since 2017, victims of forced marriage have had lifelong anonymity in law, intended to encourage more people to come forward. The joint Home Office and Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office Forced Marriage Unit provides confidential advice and support to victims and professionals, both in the UK and for British nationals facing forced marriage overseas.

Forced marriage must be distinguished from an arranged marriage. In an arranged marriage, families may take a leading role in introducing a couple, but both people freely choose whether to accept the match. Consent, freely given, is what separates a lawful arranged marriage from an illegal forced one.

Female genital mutilation

Female genital mutilation, often called FGM or sometimes referred to as cutting or female circumcision, is illegal in the United Kingdom. It involves the deliberate cutting or removal of a girl's or woman's genitals for non-medical reasons, and it has no health benefits. It is also a criminal offence to arrange or help arrange FGM abroad, including taking a girl out of the UK to have the procedure carried out, if she is a British national or permanent UK resident. This is a serious form of child abuse, and the maximum penalty for carrying out FGM or helping to arrange it is 14 years in prison.

FGM has been against the law in England, Wales and Northern Ireland since the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003, and in Scotland under the Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005. Courts can also issue FGM Protection Orders to prevent a girl being taken abroad for the procedure or to protect someone who has already undergone it.

Harassment

Harassment is unwanted behaviour that causes someone distress, alarm or fear, and it is against the law in the UK. It can take many forms, including repeated unwanted contact, threats, abusive language, stalking or bullying, and it can happen in the street, at work, online or within a relationship.

The law protects people from harassment on the grounds of personal characteristics such as sex, race, religion, disability, age or sexual orientation. Someone who experiences harassment can report it to the police, and in some cases can also take civil action through the courts to seek an injunction ordering the harassment to stop. Employers also have a duty to protect staff from harassment in the workplace.

Drugs

The misuse of illegal drugs is a criminal offence in the UK and is treated as a serious problem, both for the health of individuals and for the wider effects on families and communities. Drugs are classified as Class A, B or C, with Class A drugs, such as heroin, cocaine and ecstasy, considered the most harmful and carrying the most severe penalties.

It is illegal to possess, produce, supply or deal in controlled drugs. Penalties depend on the class of drug and the nature of the offence, ranging from a caution or fine to a lengthy prison sentence for serious supply or production offences. The police and courts treat drug-related crime seriously because of the harm drugs cause to health and their links to other criminal activity.

Weapons and the law

It is illegal to carry a knife or any other weapon capable of causing injury without a good reason. Courts treat this seriously: carrying an offensive weapon in public without lawful authority or a reasonable excuse is an offence under the Prevention of Crime Act 1953, and the definition covers any article made or adapted to cause injury, or intended to be used that way.

The Offensive Weapons Act 2019 added further restrictions in response to rising knife crime and acid attacks. It became an offence to possess a corrosive substance, such as strong acid, in a public place without good reason or lawful authority, and shops face tighter controls on selling corrosive products and knives to anyone under 18, including a ban on delivering bladed articles to a residential address after a remote sale. Certain weapons, such as flick knives and so-called zombie knives, are banned outright, and some firearms are prohibited under the Firearms Act 1968.

Anyone found carrying a knife, gun or other offensive weapon without a legitimate reason risks arrest, prosecution and a criminal record, with sentences depending on the weapon and circumstances. Learners preparing for the test should remember that carrying such an item for self-defence is not normally accepted as a lawful reason.

Driving licences

Anyone who drives a car, motorbike or other motor vehicle on a public road in the UK must hold a valid driving licence. Learners first need a provisional licence, which in Great Britain can be applied for from the age of 15 years and 9 months, though a car may not be driven until the driver turns 17. While learning, a driver must display L plates (D plates are also used in Wales), be supervised by a qualified driver aged over 21 who has held a full licence for at least three years, and hold valid insurance.

Before a full licence can be granted, the learner must pass a driving test, which includes a theory element and a practical driving examination. Once passed, the DVLA issues a full driving licence, which in England, Scotland and Wales is administered by the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency, while Northern Ireland has its own licensing authority, the Driver & Vehicle Agency. Driving licences must be renewed periodically and the holder must keep their name, address and photograph up to date.

Vehicle insurance

It is a legal requirement for every vehicle driven or kept on a public road in the UK to be covered by motor insurance, at least to a third-party level, which covers injury or damage caused to other people or their property. Driving without insurance is a criminal offence and can lead to a fine, penalty points on the licence or disqualification from driving, whatever the driver's experience or the type of licence they hold.

Even learner drivers using a provisional licence must be insured before they get behind the wheel, either through their own policy or by being added as a named driver to someone else's insurance.

Paying vehicle tax

If you own a motor vehicle and want to use it or keep it on a public road, you must pay vehicle tax, sometimes still called road tax or Vehicle Excise Duty. This applies to cars, motorcycles and most other motor vehicles. You can tax a vehicle online, by phone or at a Post Office, and you will usually need the reference number from your vehicle log book (the V5C) or a reminder letter from the DVLA.

To tax most vehicles you generally need a valid MOT certificate already in place, along with valid insurance. If you do not intend to use a vehicle on the road at all, you can declare it off the road with a Statutory Off Road Notification, known as a SORN, which means you do not have to pay vehicle tax while it stays off the public highway. Driving or keeping an untaxed vehicle on a public road without a SORN is an offence and can lead to fines or the vehicle being clamped or seized.

The MOT test

Most cars and motorcycles need an MOT test once they reach three years old in Great Britain, and this must then be renewed every year. In Northern Ireland the equivalent test applies from four years old. The MOT checks that a vehicle meets minimum standards of road safety, roadworthiness and exhaust emissions; it does not check the general mechanical condition of the engine or gearbox.

The test is carried out at an authorised testing centre and, if the vehicle passes, you receive an MOT certificate valid for a year. Driving a vehicle that needs an MOT but does not have a valid one is illegal, and it can also invalidate your insurance. Vehicle tax and the MOT are separate requirements: a vehicle usually needs both a valid MOT and valid tax, along with insurance, before it can legally be driven on public roads.

The Highway Code

The Highway Code sets out official rules and guidance for using the roads safely. It applies to England, Scotland and Wales, with separate guidance published for Northern Ireland, and it is essential reading for every kind of road user, including pedestrians, cyclists, horse riders, motorcyclists and drivers.

Some rules in the Code are legal requirements, shown by the words 'must' or 'must not'; breaking these is a criminal offence. Other rules use 'should' or 'should not' and are advisory rather than offences in themselves, though ignoring them can still be used as evidence in court if something goes wrong. Anyone who drives, rides or uses the roads in the UK is expected to know and follow the Highway Code, and it forms the basis of the driving theory test.

Driving legally on UK roads

Anyone driving a car or motorcycle on public roads in the UK must hold a valid driving licence, which requires passing a driving test covering both theory and practical skills. The minimum age to drive a car is 17, though this drops to 16 for people receiving the higher or enhanced rate of the mobility component of Personal Independence Payment or Disability Living Allowance. Riding a moped requires a minimum age of 16, and other vehicles, such as large lorries and buses, have their own age requirements and additional tests. In Northern Ireland, a newly qualified driver must display an R plate, showing they are a restricted driver, for one year after passing the test.

Drivers can use their full licence until they reach 70, after which it must be renewed every three years. If you hold a driving licence issued in an EU country, Iceland, Liechtenstein or Norway, you can drive in the UK for as long as that licence remains valid; licences from other countries can usually be used for up to twelve months after arrival.

Every car or motorcycle kept in the UK must be registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency, known as the DVLA. Owners must pay vehicle tax, sometimes still called road tax, and the vehicle must be covered by valid motor insurance at all times; driving without insurance is a serious criminal offence. Once a vehicle is more than three years old, it must pass an annual safety check called the MOT test, and it is illegal to drive a vehicle of that age without a valid MOT certificate.

What to do after a road accident

If you are involved in a road accident that causes injury, or damage to another vehicle, property or certain animals, you must stop and give your name and address, along with the vehicle owner's name and address and the vehicle's registration number, to anyone with reasonable grounds for asking. If you cannot give these details at the scene, you must report the accident to the police as soon as reasonably possible and in any case within 24 hours, and produce your certificate of insurance; if you do not have the certificate with you, you can take it to a police station within seven days. Failing to stop, failing to give these details or failing to report the accident is a criminal offence.

Most insurers also expect to be told about an accident promptly, usually within 24 to 48 hours, even if you do not intend to make a claim.

Paying Income Tax

Income Tax is a tax paid on earnings, including wages, salaries, most pensions and profits from self-employment. Most employees pay it automatically through the Pay As You Earn, or PAYE, system, where an employer deducts tax directly from wages before paying them, along with National Insurance contributions. Self-employed people usually pay Income Tax through an annual Self Assessment tax return submitted to HM Revenue and Customs, the government department responsible for collecting taxes.

Everyone has a tax-free Personal Allowance, an amount of income they can earn each year before Income Tax is due, and income above that threshold is taxed at increasing rates as earnings rise. Income Tax and National Insurance contributions fund public services, including the National Health Service, education, welfare benefits and pensions.

National Insurance and your National Insurance number

A National Insurance number is a unique personal account number used to make sure that the National Insurance contributions and tax you pay are properly recorded against your name. Everyone in the UK is sent one automatically shortly before their 16th birthday.

If you come to the UK from abroad and want to work, look for work or become self-employed, you will need a National Insurance number. You can start work before you have one, but if you have permission to work in the UK you should telephone the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) to arrange to get a number, and you may be asked to attend an interview and bring documents proving your identity and your right to work. National Insurance contributions help fund the State Pension and certain other benefits, and are paid by employees, employers and self-employed people once earnings pass set thresholds.

PAYE: tax through your employer

Most employees in the UK pay Income Tax and National Insurance through PAYE, which stands for Pay As You Earn. Under this system your employer deducts the tax and National Insurance due directly from your wages each payday and sends it to HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC), so you do not usually need to work anything out or pay it yourself.

You can find further information about Income Tax, including how PAYE works, from HMRC.

Self Assessment: reporting your own tax

If you are self-employed, or you have income that is not automatically taxed through PAYE, you normally need to complete a Self Assessment tax return and pay the tax you owe directly to HMRC, rather than having it deducted by an employer.

HMRC can give help and advice about taxes and completing tax forms through its self-assessment helpline and guidance service, which is useful if you are unsure whether you need to register or how to complete a return.

Council tax and local services

Council tax is a local tax charged on most homes in England, Scotland and Wales. It is collected by the local council and helps pay for local services such as rubbish collection, policing, fire services, road maintenance and libraries. The amount charged depends on the valuation band of the property, which reflects its value, and on the rate set by the local council. Northern Ireland uses a different system, called domestic rates, instead of council tax.

Almost every household must pay council tax, though some people qualify for a discount, for example someone living alone, and some properties or residents are exempt. Anyone moving into a new home should register with the local council to arrange payment.

National Insurance numbers

A National Insurance number is a unique personal reference number used to record the National Insurance contributions and tax that a person pays. It stays the same for life and is not a form of identification. Anyone who wants to work in the UK, or claim benefits, needs a National Insurance number.

People normally receive their National Insurance number automatically shortly before their sixteenth birthday if they have lived in the UK. Someone arriving from abroad who intends to work should apply for a number as soon as possible; it is possible to start work before the number arrives, provided the person can prove their right to work in the UK.

Voting in the UK

The UK has held fully democratic elections since 1928, when women gained the vote on the same terms as men. The minimum voting age of 18 was fixed in 1969. With a few exceptions, all UK-born and naturalised adult citizens have the right to vote, along with adult citizens of the Commonwealth and the Irish Republic who are resident in the UK. Adult citizens of other EU states resident in the UK may vote in all elections except General Elections.

To vote, a person's name must appear on the electoral register, which is updated every year in September or October when a registration form is sent to each household. Registration can be arranged through the local council electoral registration office, and forms are available in English, Welsh and other languages. Northern Ireland uses individual registration, meaning each eligible voter completes their own form rather than one per household.

Voting takes place at a polling station, or polling place in Scotland, which is open from 7am to 10pm on election day. Voters receive a poll card beforehand showing where and when to vote. At the polling station, staff ask for the voter's name and address; in Northern Ireland, photographic identification must also be shown. The voter then marks a ballot paper in private and places it in the ballot box. Anyone who finds it difficult to attend in person can arrange a postal vote, which is sent to their home before the election and returned by post.

Most UK, Irish Republic or Commonwealth citizens aged 18 or over can stand for public office, though members of the armed forces, civil servants and people convicted of certain criminal offences cannot. Members of the House of Lords cannot stand for the House of Commons but may hold other public offices.

Getting in touch with your representatives

Every person in the UK has an elected Member of Parliament (MP) representing their local constituency, and contacting them is a normal and encouraged part of public life. If you want to watch Parliament at work, you can listen to debates from the public galleries of the House of Commons or House of Lords in the Palace of Westminster. You can write to your MP in advance to request tickets, or simply queue on the day at the public entrance, and entrance is free. Queues for the Commons can be long, sometimes an hour or two, whereas the Lords is usually easier to get into.

The same principle applies to the devolved legislatures. In Northern Ireland, elected members called MLAs meet in the Assembly at Stormont, Belfast, and you can arrange a visit either through the Assembly's Education Service or by contacting an MLA directly. In Scotland, MSPs meet in the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh, where visitor services can provide information, book tickets or arrange tours. In Wales, elected members meet in the Senedd in Cardiff Bay, an open building offering guided tours and public gallery seats that can be booked through the Assembly Booking Service.

Joining a political party

Political parties in the UK welcome new members, and joining one is a recognised way to support particular views and take part in the democratic process. Membership is open to the public and gives people a route into party activities, policy discussions and, if they choose, standing for office themselves.

British citizens can stand for office as a local councillor, a Member of Parliament or in the devolved legislatures. Rules on who else may stand have changed since the UK left the EU. Eligible Commonwealth citizens and citizens of the Republic of Ireland can also stand for these offices, including as an MP. Following changes introduced by the Elections Act, most EU citizens lost the right to stand as an MP, though some EU citizens can still vote and stand in local elections in England if they hold a qualifying status, such as being a citizen of a country with a bilateral voting and candidacy treaty with the UK, or having lived in the UK before the end of the Brexit transition period on 31 December 2020. Anyone interested in party membership can find details through the individual party websites.

Campaigning and canvassing

Political parties are at their busiest during election campaigns. Party members work to persuade voters to support their candidates, often by handing out leaflets in the street or knocking on doors to ask for support directly. This door to door activity is known as canvassing, and it is a familiar sight in the run up to any election.

No one is obliged to reveal their voting intentions to a canvasser. You are free to decline to answer, and campaigners have no right to insist on knowing how you plan to vote or to pressure you into supporting a particular candidate.

Volunteering and helping your community

Volunteering means working for good causes without payment, and it counts as one of the clearest ways to show good citizenship in the UK. It brings practical benefits alongside the wider good it does: meeting new people, practising English, building skills for a CV and simply helping others are all common reasons people give for taking part.

The range of activities is wide. Examples include caring for animals at a rescue shelter, running or supporting a youth group, litter picking to improve the local environment, working in a homelessness shelter, mentoring someone recently released from prison, staffing an information desk in a hospital, or helping at a residential care home for older people.

Volunteers are also needed to support local services more formally. People can join the governing bodies of universities, housing associations, museums and arts councils, become a special constable or lay representative with the police, or apply to become a magistrate. Charities and public bodies usually advertise these opportunities in local newspapers, on local radio or on their own websites.

Blood and organ donation are also treated as part of this civic picture. Giving blood takes about an hour and helps hospitals treat a wide range of injuries and illnesses; registration is done through separate national blood services for England and north Wales, the rest of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Registering as an organ donor can make it easier for a person's family to agree to donation after death, and living people can also donate a kidney.

Charities in the UK

The UK has thousands of active charities and voluntary organisations working to improve the lives of people, animals and the environment. Some are British branches of international bodies, such as the British Red Cross, while others are small and work only in a particular local area.

Well-known examples include Age UK, which works with older people, the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), and homelessness charities such as Crisis and Shelter. Medical research is supported by charities including Cancer Research UK, the environment by bodies such as the National Trust and Friends of the Earth, and animal welfare by organisations such as the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals (PDSA).

Charities rely on volunteers to help run their activities and raise money, and most advertise opportunities through local newspapers or their own websites.

School governors and school boards

School governors, known as members of the school board in Scotland, are volunteers from the local community who want to make a positive contribution to children's education. Anyone can put themselves forward for the role: no formal qualifications are needed, and there is no requirement to have children at the school. Governors must be aged 18 or over at the date of their election or appointment, and there is no upper age limit.

Governing bodies play an important part in raising school standards. They have three key roles: setting the strategic direction of the school, ensuring accountability, and monitoring and evaluating school performance.

Anyone interested can contact their local school directly to ask whether a governor or school board member is needed. In England, vacancies can also be searched online, and parents and other community groups can apply to open a free school in their local area, with further detail available from the Department for Education.

Getting involved where you live

Being a good neighbour is one of the simplest ways to take part in community life. When you move into a new home, it helps to introduce yourself to the people living nearby. Neighbours can become a source of practical support, for example feeding a pet while you are away or offering advice about local shops and services, and getting to know them helps you settle into an area and make friends.

Good neighbourly relations also depend on small courtesies: respecting privacy, keeping noise down, keeping a garden tidy and only putting refuse out for collection when it is due. Beyond individual streets, many people support their wider neighbourhood through school life. Parents can help in classrooms or support activities, and schools often run fundraising events such as book or toy sales, frequently organised through a parent-teacher association (PTA). Volunteering for these events, or joining the PTA itself, is a practical way to help a school while meeting other people locally.

A further route into community organisation is becoming a school governor, or a member of a school board in Scotland. Governors and board members are volunteers from the local community who want to contribute to children's education. Candidates must be at least 18 at the point of election or appointment, though there is no upper age limit. Governors carry three key responsibilities: setting the strategic direction of the school, ensuring accountability, and monitoring and evaluating school performance. Anyone interested can approach a local school directly, and in England there is also an online route through the School Governors' One-Stop Shop.

Supporting people who need help

Volunteering is unpaid work for good causes, and it is one of the main ways people in the UK support those who are vulnerable or in need. Common activities include working with the homeless in a shelter, mentoring someone recently released from prison, helping older people in a residential care home, or staffing an information desk in a hospital. Volunteering brings benefits to the volunteer as well: it is a chance to meet new people, practise English, and build skills that strengthen a CV.

A great deal of this work happens through charities. The UK has thousands of active charities and voluntary organisations working to improve the lives of people, animals and the environment. Some are British branches of international bodies, such as the British Red Cross, while others are small and local. Charities dedicated to vulnerable groups include Age UK for older people, the NSPCC for children, and Crisis and Shelter for homeless people, alongside medical research charities such as Cancer Research UK. Opportunities to volunteer are usually advertised in local newspapers or on charity websites, and a general directory is available at do-it.org.uk.

Two further ways of helping vulnerable people are giving blood and registering as an organ donor. Donated blood helps hospital patients with a wide range of injuries and illnesses, and giving blood takes about an hour. Registering as an organ donor makes it easier for a person's family to agree to donation after death, and living people can also donate a kidney. Registration for both is arranged through separate national services for England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Young people have their own dedicated route into volunteering through the National Citizen Service, which offers 16- and 17-year-olds outdoor activities, skills development and a community project, with separate volunteering programmes signposted in each of the four nations.

Jury service

Serving on a jury is a civic duty that follows on from being on the electoral register: names are selected at random from that register when a court needs a jury. People aged 18 to 75 can be called for jury service in England and Wales, following an increase to the upper age limit from 70 to 75 that took effect in 2016; slightly different arrangements apply in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Anyone summoned is generally expected to attend, though certain people, including some with criminal convictions, are disqualified or excused.